A mid-level course for civil, mechanical and electrical engineering students and graduates preparing for professional practice. You will learn how projects move from feasibility through schematic design, design development and construction documents, and how products move through design reviews; write a checked calculation package (in Python, with units at every step); and review a contractor's submittal against a specification. The codes and standards module teaches you to find, read and cite a code clause, to tell ASME, IEEE, ASTM, ACI and other bodies apart, and to run a QA/QC check and back-check. The licensure module covers building an FE study plan from the official NCEES specification, logging qualifying experience toward the PE, and resolving ethics cases with the NSPE Code of Ethics. Licensing rules, exam details and fees change and differ by state, so lessons link to NCEES, state boards, ABET and NSPE instead of copying them. This course teaches the knowledge only: an ABET-accredited degree, the FE exam, supervised experience and the PE licence are still required to practise, and every real design needs review by a licensed engineer. Prerequisites: Foundations for Engineering & Energy Careers and Calculus & Linear Algebra for STEM.

How engineering work is really done and licensed: project phases, calculation packages, specs and submittals, codes and standards, QA/QC, the FE and PE, and ethics.

Engineering Practice & Licensure

## Why this matters

As a student you solve problems that arrive fully defined. At work, an engineering project starts as a vague need ("we need a bigger pump station", "the new line needs a control panel") and takes months or years to become something built. Knowing the phases, who does what, and which documents each phase produces lets you contribute from your first week, ask sensible questions and understand why a "small change" late in a project can be so expensive.

## The core idea: decisions narrow phase by phase

Every project moves from many options and little detail to one option and full detail. Early decisions are cheap to change and have the most influence on cost; late changes are expensive because drawings, orders and construction depend on them.

### Building and infrastructure projects

Civil, structural, mechanical (building services) and electrical engineers on buildings and infrastructure usually work in these phases (names vary by firm and contract):

| phase | purpose | typical deliverables |
|---|---|---|
| **Planning / feasibility** | Is the project viable? Which options exist? | studies, site investigation, rough cost, basis of design |
| **Schematic design (SD)** | Choose the concept and main systems | layouts, system sizing, outline specifications, cost estimate |
| **Design development (DD)** | Fix sizes, routes and equipment | developed drawings, calculation packages, coordinated layouts |
| **Construction documents (CD)** | Describe everything needed to build | full drawing set, specifications, final calcs, sealed by the engineer of record |
| **Bidding / procurement** | Select a contractor | addenda, answers to bidder questions |
| **Construction administration (CA)** | Make sure what is built matches the design intent | submittal reviews, RFI responses, site observation reports |
| **Closeout** | Hand over | record drawings, operation and maintenance manuals, commissioning reports |

Teams often talk in percentages: a "30% set" is roughly the end of schematic design, "60%" is design development and "90%" is a near-final set going through final checking before it is issued for construction.

### Product and machine projects

Mechanical and electrical engineers designing products or equipment follow a similar narrowing path with different names: requirements, concept design, **preliminary design review (PDR)**, detailed design, **critical design review (CDR)**, prototype build and test, verification and validation, and release to production. The deliverables are requirements documents, CAD models and drawings, analyses, test plans and reports, and a bill of materials.

## Who is involved

- **Owner / client:** pays for the project and sets the requirements.
- **Engineer of record (EOR):** the licensed engineer responsible for a discipline's design; their seal on the documents carries legal responsibility.
- **Designers and engineers-in-training:** do much of the calculation, modelling and drafting under the EOR's supervision.
- **Contractor and subcontractors:** build it, and submit shop drawings and product data showing how.
- **Authority having jurisdiction (AHJ):** the building department, utility or regulator that issues permits and inspects.

## Delivery methods change the flow

- **Design-bid-build:** the owner hires a designer, completes the design, then bids it to contractors. Clear roles; slower.
- **Design-build:** one contract covers design and construction. Faster and fewer hand-offs; the owner has less direct control of design decisions.
- **Construction manager at risk (CMAR):** a construction manager joins during design to advise on cost and buildability, then builds for a guaranteed maximum price.

## Worked example: a small pump station upgrade

1. *Feasibility:* a civil engineer compares three options (new pumps in the existing building, a new building, or a package station) with rough costs. The owner picks option one.
2. *SD:* mechanical sizes the pumps from flow and head requirements; electrical confirms the service can carry the new motors; structural checks that the floor can take the equipment.
3. *DD:* equipment is selected, pipe routes coordinated, and calculation packages written and checked.
4. *CD:* the drawings and specifications are completed, checked and sealed; the permit application goes in.
5. *CA:* the contractor submits pump data sheets; the engineer reviews them against the specification, answers RFIs and visits the site.

A change of pump model in step 2 costs an afternoon. The same change after the pumps are ordered costs weeks and real money.

## Common mistakes

- **Detailing too early.** Drawing bolt holes before the concept is agreed wastes effort that will be redone.
- **Missing the basis of design.** Without written design criteria, nobody can check whether the design meets them.
- **Poor coordination.** A duct and a beam occupying the same space, found on site instead of in DD.
- **Treating CA as an afterthought.** Many problems are caught, or missed, in submittal review.

## Quick recap

- Projects narrow from options to detail: feasibility, SD, DD, CD, bidding, CA and closeout (or PDR and CDR for products).
- Each phase has defined deliverables; percentages (30/60/90) describe progress.
- The engineer of record seals the final documents and carries responsibility for them.
- Changes get more expensive the later they happen.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and take the quiz to match phases with their deliverables and roles.


Map the phases of an engineering project, from feasibility to closeout, and the deliverables and roles in each.

How engineering projects run

Construction Documents BREAKDOWN | Schematic Design to Bidding

## Why this matters

On a real project, a calculation is not a scrap of paper that gives you a number. It is a **record**: evidence that the design meets its criteria, which a checker reviews, a licensed engineer relies on when sealing drawings, and which may be read years later after a failure, a renovation or a dispute. A calculation that cannot be followed by someone else is, for practical purposes, a calculation that was never done.

## The core idea: a calc package anyone can check

Firms have their own templates, but a good calculation package almost always contains:

1. **Cover sheet:** project, calc number and title, revision, originator, checker, approver and dates.
2. **Purpose and scope:** what is being calculated and what is not ("gravity design of beam B3; lateral loads by others").
3. **Design criteria and references:** the governing codes and standards **with edition**, client criteria, and the basis of design.
4. **Assumptions:** support conditions, material grades, load sources. Mark any that must be confirmed later ("assumed; to be verified by survey").
5. **Inputs, with sources:** every number has a source (a drawing, a vendor data sheet, a code table, a previous calc).
6. **Method:** the formula or software used, and why it applies.
7. **Calculations with units** at every step.
8. **Results and conclusion:** a short summary table: demand, capacity, ratio, OK or not.
9. **Revision log:** what changed in each revision and why.

## Units at every step

Most calculation errors that reach a checker are unit errors: kN mixed with N, mm⁴ with m⁴, kip-ft with kN·m. Two habits prevent them:

- **Convert to one consistent system first** (for example SI base units: N, m, Pa) and convert results back only for reporting.
- **Write units on every line** and check that they cancel. If you expect metres and get N·m, something is wrong.

Useful conversions to know: 1 GPa = 10⁹ Pa; 1 mm⁴ = 10⁻¹² m⁴; 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 ft = 0.3048 m; so 1 kip-ft = 1.356 kN·m; 1 psf = 47.88 Pa.

In Python, unit libraries such as **pint** attach units to numbers and raise an error if you add metres to newtons. In spreadsheets and Mathcad-style tools, keep a units column next to every value.

## Worked example: a textbook beam check

This is a classroom exercise to show the format, not a design. A simply supported steel beam spans L = 6.0 m and carries a uniform service load w = 10 kN/m. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 80 × 10⁶ mm⁴.

**Convert to SI base units:**

```text
w = 10 kN/m        = 10 000 N/m
L = 6.0 m
E = 200 GPa        = 200 × 10^9 Pa
I = 80 × 10^6 mm^4 = 80 × 10^6 × 10^-12 m^4 = 8.0 × 10^-5 m^4
```

**Reactions and moment** (standard simply supported beam formulas):

```text
R     = w L / 2   = 10 000 × 6.0 / 2   = 30 000 N    = 30.0 kN
M_max = w L^2 / 8 = 10 000 × 36 / 8    = 45 000 N·m  = 45.0 kN·m
```

**Midspan deflection:**

```text
δ = 5 w L^4 / (384 E I)
  = 5 × 10 000 × 1296 / (384 × 200 × 10^9 × 8.0 × 10^-5)
  = 6.48 × 10^7 / 6.144 × 10^9
  = 0.01055 m = 10.5 mm
```

Unit check: (N/m × m⁴) / (Pa × m⁴) = (N·m³) / (N/m² × m⁴) = m. Good.

**Serviceability check** against a deflection limit of L/360 (a limit commonly used for floor live load; the governing code and the project criteria set the limit for each case):

```text
allowable = 6000 mm / 360 = 16.7 mm
ratio     = 10.5 / 16.7   = 0.63   -> OK
```

A real beam design would also need the governing load combinations, strength checks for bending and shear to the applicable steel standard, lateral-torsional buckling, connections and vibration, all under the review of a licensed engineer. This example shows only how to set out and check a calculation.

## Writing calcs in Python

A script or notebook can be a fine calc package if it reads like one: a docstring header with calc number and revision, named inputs with sources in comments, one function per formula, units in every variable name or comment, and a printed results table. Because it is code, it can be re-run when an input changes, and the checker can test it with known cases (for example a hand-calculated example from a textbook).

## Common mistakes

- **Numbers without sources.** "w = 10 kN/m" from where? Cite it.
- **Mixed units.** mm and m in the same formula.
- **Hidden assumptions.** Pinned supports assumed but never stated.
- **No conclusion.** The reader should not have to hunt for "OK" or "not OK".
- **Editing a checked calc without a new revision.** Any change after checking needs a revision and a re-check.

## Quick recap

- A calc package is a record someone else must be able to follow and check.
- Include criteria with editions, assumptions, sourced inputs, method, units, results and a revision log.
- Convert to consistent units first and check that units cancel.
- Code-based calcs are welcome if they are readable, tested and versioned; real designs still need licensed review.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and finish a small Python calc package: convert the inputs, compute the deflection and write the check.


Write a calculation package someone else can check: criteria, assumptions, sourced inputs, consistent units and a clear conclusion.

Calculation packages

How To Use Dimensional Analysis To Find The Units of a Variable

Build a checklist from the spec excerpt: one row per measurable requirement (type, flow and head, casing pressure, impeller, seal, motor voltage, phase, frequency, efficiency, speed, enclosure, required documents).

Compare the submittal with each row and mark it Compliant, Non-compliant or Not shown.

Check the performance point: does 40 gpm at 38 ft meet 40 gpm at 35 ft? Note anything you would ask the contractor to confirm about the selection.

Write one specific comment for each non-compliant or missing item, citing the spec paragraph and stating the requirement (for example "2.1.C: casing rating at least 175 psi; submitted 125 psi.").

Choose a review action (No exceptions taken, Make corrections noted, Revise and resubmit, or Rejected) and write one sentence explaining why.

List one item you would route to another discipline (for example the motor voltage to the electrical engineer) and why.

Compare your result with a classmate or with the reading: you should have found problems with the casing rating, the motor voltage, the speed and the missing installation instructions.

## Why this matters

Drawings show *where* things go and how big they are. **Specifications** say *what quality* they must be and *how* they are installed. **Submittals** are the contractor's proof of what they actually intend to buy and build. Submittal review is one of the most frequent tasks given to early-career engineers, and it is where many mismatches (the wrong voltage motor, a weaker concrete mix, a breaker with too low an interrupting rating) are caught before they reach the site.

## The core idea: specs define requirements, submittals prove compliance

### How specifications are organised

In North America most building and infrastructure specifications follow the Construction Specifications Institute's **MasterFormat**, which groups work into numbered divisions, for example:

| division | content |
|---|---|
| 03 | Concrete |
| 05 | Metals |
| 22 | Plumbing |
| 23 | Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) |
| 26 | Electrical |

Each **section** (for example `23 21 23` for hydronic pumps) usually has three parts:

1. **Part 1 General:** scope, references to standards, **submittal requirements**, quality assurance, warranty.
2. **Part 2 Products:** the performance and material requirements, and acceptable manufacturers.
3. **Part 3 Execution:** installation, testing, start-up and cleaning.

Specifications use mandatory language ("shall") for requirements. They cite standards (ASTM, UL, NEMA, AWWA and others) rather than repeating them.

### What a submittal contains

- **Product data:** manufacturer catalogue sheets with the selected model, options and ratings marked.
- **Shop drawings:** drawings made by the fabricator or contractor showing exactly how an item will be made or installed (steel connections, rebar placement, panel layouts).
- **Samples:** physical finishes or materials.
- **Certificates and test reports:** mill certificates, factory test results, listings.

The contractor reviews and stamps the submittal first, then sends it to the design team.

## How an engineer reviews a submittal

1. **Find the governing requirements:** the spec section, the drawings and schedules, and any addenda or approved changes.
2. **Build a checklist** of every measurable requirement: performance, ratings, materials, dimensions, standards, options, warranty, required documents.
3. **Compare line by line.** Mark each item as compliant, non-compliant, or not shown.
4. **Check coordination:** does it fit the space, match the electrical supply, connect to the adjacent systems?
5. **Write clear comments,** each tied to a spec paragraph ("23 21 23, 2.2.C requires 208 V, 3-phase; submitted motor is 230 V, single-phase.").
6. **Choose an action.** Typical stamps are *No exceptions taken*, *Make corrections noted*, *Revise and resubmit* and *Rejected*. Wording varies by firm and contract.

The review is usually for **general conformance with the design intent**. It does not relieve the contractor of responsibility for dimensions, quantities, fabrication and means and methods. Firms phrase their review stamps carefully for exactly this reason: follow your firm's wording and procedure.

## Worked example

The specification requires: "Pump shall deliver 30 gpm at 45 ft total dynamic head. Motor shall be 208 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz, maximum 1,800 rpm nominal speed."

The submitted data sheet shows a pump curve passing through 30 gpm at 46 ft, and a motor rated 208-230/460 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz, 3,450 rpm.

- Flow and head: **compliant** (the operating point meets or slightly exceeds the requirement; check it is not far off the best-efficiency point).
- Voltage and phase: **compliant** (208 V, 3-phase is covered by the dual-voltage rating).
- Speed: **non-compliant** (3,450 rpm exceeds the 1,800 rpm maximum).

Action: *Revise and resubmit* with the comment "Spec 2.2.C: maximum nominal speed 1,800 rpm. Submit a 1,800 rpm (4-pole) motor selection with a matching pump curve."

## RFIs and substitutions

- A **request for information (RFI)** is the contractor's formal question about unclear or conflicting documents. Answer in writing, citing the documents; if the answer changes scope or cost, it goes through the change process.
- A **substitution request** proposes a product different from the specified ones. The contractor must show it is equal; the engineer is not obliged to accept it.

## Common mistakes

- **Reviewing only the highlighted model.** Options and accessories hidden in the small print often do not comply.
- **Vague comments.** "Check motor" helps nobody; cite the paragraph and state the requirement.
- **Approving outside your discipline.** Route structural supports, electrical feeders and controls to the right reviewers.
- **Redesigning in the review.** The review checks compliance; design changes need a formal change.
- **Missing the clock.** Contracts set review periods; late reviews delay the job.

## Quick recap

- Specs (MasterFormat divisions, Parts 1 to 3) define quality; submittals show what the contractor will supply.
- Review against a checklist built from the spec, drawings and addenda, and cite paragraphs in every comment.
- Choose a clear action and follow your firm's review-stamp wording and procedure.
- RFIs answer questions; substitutions must be shown to be equal.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and review a short sample submittal against a spec excerpt, then choose the review action.


Read a specification section and review a contractor's submittal against it, with clear comments and a review action.

Specs and submittals

How To Do Construction Submittals

Map project phases and deliverables, write a checked calculation package, and review submittals against specifications.

Professional Practice

Find out which building code edition your city, county or state has adopted, using the local building department or state website. Note the edition and whether there are local amendments.

Open that edition (or the nearest edition you can read free) and find the chapter that covers your topic using the table of contents or index, using the code's own vocabulary.

Read the whole section, including the paragraph that introduces it, and copy the requirement in your own words.

Look up every defined term the requirement relies on in the definitions chapter and note any that surprised you.

Check for exceptions and, if the value comes from a table, read every footnote that applies.

Follow at least one reference from the section to another section or to a referenced standard and note what it adds.

Write a full citation: code, edition, section, table, footnote or exception used, and any local amendment.

Convert any numeric requirement to the other unit system (SI or US customary) and show the conversion factor you used.

## Why this matters

Codes are the legal minimum for safety in buildings, electrical installations, pressure equipment and much more. Engineers do not memorise them; they **navigate** them: find the clause that governs a situation, read it exactly, follow its references and exceptions, and cite it so a checker or an inspector can verify the decision. Reading a code badly (the wrong edition, a missed exception, a skipped definition) is a common source of rework and, occasionally, of real danger.

## The core idea: model codes, adoption and editions

- A **model code** is written by a standards organisation, for example the **International Building Code (IBC)** from the International Code Council (ICC), or the **National Electrical Code (NEC, NFPA 70)** from the National Fire Protection Association.
- A model code has no legal force on its own. A state, county or city **adopts** it, often a specific edition and often with local **amendments**.
- Codes **reference standards** for technical detail. The IBC, for example, refers to **ASCE 7** (*Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures*) for loads, and to material standards such as ACI 318 for concrete.

So the first question on any project is: **which code, which edition, with which amendments, does this jurisdiction enforce?** The answer is on the building department's or state's website, or in the project's basis of design. The newest edition is not necessarily the one that applies.

## How a code is laid out

1. **Scope and administration:** what the code applies to and how it is enforced.
2. **Definitions:** defined terms (often in italics) have a precise meaning that may differ from everyday use. "Story", "occupancy" and "dwelling unit" all have exact definitions.
3. **Technical chapters:** organised by topic, numbered hierarchically (chapter 16, section 1607, subsection 1607.1 and so on).
4. **Tables:** many requirements live in tables with footnotes. **Read the footnotes**: they often change the value.
5. **Exceptions:** listed after a requirement; they apply only when every condition in them is met.
6. **Referenced standards:** a chapter listing the exact standard editions the code calls up.

Language matters: **"shall"** is mandatory; **"may"** is permissive. Commentary and handbooks explain intent, but they are not the code.

## A method for finding and applying a clause

1. **Confirm the edition** the jurisdiction has adopted, and any amendments.
2. **Classify the situation** using the code's terms (occupancy, construction type, equipment type).
3. **Search** the index or table of contents with the code's vocabulary, not your own.
4. **Read the whole section,** including the charging paragraph above it, its exceptions and the table footnotes.
5. **Look up every defined term** you are relying on.
6. **Follow references** to other sections or standards.
7. **Record the citation:** document, edition, section, table and any footnote or exception you used.

## Worked example: a floor live load

You need the uniform live load for an office floor in a building designed to the IBC, which in turn points to ASCE 7 for loads.

1. The project basis of design says the jurisdiction enforces a specific IBC edition, which references a specific ASCE 7 edition.
2. Occupancy: business; the space is office use.
3. In the IBC loads chapter, the live-load section points to a table of minimum uniformly distributed live loads by occupancy (Table 1607.1 in recent editions). ASCE 7 has the equivalent table in its live-load chapter.
4. The "office buildings" row lists separate values for offices, for lobbies and first-floor corridors, and for corridors above the first floor. In recent editions the office value is 50 psf, and corridors carry more. Footnotes and nearby sections add requirements, such as an allowance for movable partitions and concentrated loads.
5. Citation: "Office floor live load per [IBC edition] Table 1607.1 / [ASCE 7 edition] live-load table, plus partition allowance per [section]."

If you need SI units: 1 psf = 47.88 Pa, so 50 psf = 2,394 Pa, about 2.39 kPa.

Your value must always come from the edition that applies to your project, not from this lesson. This example shows the method; selecting loads for a real design is the responsibility of the engineer of record.

## Where to read codes

Many model codes can be read free online in a read-only view, for example ICC codes at [codes.iccsafe.org](https://codes.iccsafe.org) and NFPA codes (including NFPA 70) through free access on [www.nfpa.org](https://www.nfpa.org). ASCE 7 is available from [www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7](https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7). Access terms change, so check each site (checked on 2026-10-23). Universities and employers often provide full subscriptions.

## Common mistakes

- **Wrong edition.** Using the latest edition when the jurisdiction enforces an older one.
- **Skipping footnotes and exceptions.** The headline value is not the whole answer.
- **Everyday meanings for defined terms.**
- **Citing a handbook or commentary** instead of the code itself.
- **Ignoring local amendments.**

## Quick recap

- Model codes become law when a jurisdiction adopts a specific edition, often with amendments.
- Definitions, tables, footnotes, exceptions and referenced standards all shape the answer.
- Confirm the edition, classify, search with code vocabulary, read the whole section, follow references, cite exactly.
- Real designs use the project's governing edition, under a licensed engineer's responsibility.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and find, read and cite a real code clause using a free online code library.


Find, read and cite a code clause: the adopted edition, definitions, tables, footnotes, exceptions and referenced standards.

Reading a code

How to Read a Code Book | ICC Code Books

Gravity Loads (ASCE 7)

## Why this matters

Engineering documents are full of short codes: "ASTM A992", "ACI 318", "ASME B31.3", "IEEE 1584", "NFPA 70". Each points to a standard that thousands of engineers, manufacturers and inspectors rely on, so that a steel beam, a concrete mix or a circuit breaker means the same thing everywhere. Knowing which body publishes what lets you find the right document quickly, specify materials correctly and understand what a reviewer is asking for.

## The core idea: codes, standards and who writes them

- A **standard** is a published document that sets requirements, test methods, specifications or recommended practice, agreed by a committee through a consensus process.
- A **code** is a standard (or a collection) intended to be adopted into law, such as a building code or electrical code.
- A standard becomes mandatory when a code or a contract **references** it. On its own it is voluntary.

In the United States, **ANSI** (the American National Standards Institute) does not usually write technical standards itself; it accredits the organisations that do and approves American National Standards. Internationally, **ISO** and **IEC** (International Electrotechnical Commission) publish standards used worldwide.

## The main bodies and what they cover

| body | known for | examples |
|---|---|---|
| **ASME** (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) | pressure equipment, piping, mechanical components, drawings | Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC); B31 piping codes such as B31.1 power piping and B31.3 process piping; Y14.5 dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) |
| **IEEE** (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) | electrical power, electronics, communications | IEEE 1584 arc-flash hazard calculations; IEEE 802 networking (802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi); the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC, C2) for utility systems |
| **ASTM International** | material specifications and test methods | ASTM A992 structural steel for wide-flange shapes; ASTM C39 compressive strength testing of concrete cylinders; ASTM E8 tension testing of metals |
| **ACI** (American Concrete Institute) | concrete design and construction | ACI 318 *Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete*; ACI 301 specifications for concrete construction |
| **ASCE** (American Society of Civil Engineers) | loads and civil infrastructure | ASCE 7 minimum design loads (wind, snow, seismic, live) |
| **AISC** (American Institute of Steel Construction) | structural steel design | AISC 360 specification for structural steel buildings |
| **NFPA** (National Fire Protection Association) | fire and electrical safety | NFPA 70 (NEC); NFPA 70E electrical safety in the workplace; NFPA 13 sprinkler systems |
| **UL** (UL Standards & Engagement) | product safety standards and the listing and certification of products by UL Solutions | UL 508A industrial control panels |

## How to read a standard designation

Designations carry information. Take **ASTM A992/A992M-yy**, where `yy` stands for the edition year:

- `A`: ASTM's letter for ferrous metals (C is for cementitious, ceramic, concrete and masonry materials; D for miscellaneous materials such as plastics and soils; E for miscellaneous subjects including many test methods).
- `992`: the standard number.
- `/A992M`: the metric (SI) companion.
- `-yy`: the last two digits of the edition year (for example `-20` would mean 2020).

Many standards are reapproved or revised every few years. A project specification should cite the edition, or the code that references it should fix the edition. As with codes, the edition that applies is the one the contract or the adopted code calls up, not necessarily the newest.

## Worked example: matching standards to a task

| task | where you look first |
|---|---|
| Specify the steel grade for a building's wide-flange beams | ASTM A992 (material), designed to AISC 360 |
| Check what strength test the concrete lab should run on cylinders | ASTM C39 |
| Design reinforced-concrete beams in a US building | ACI 318, as adopted through the building code |
| Design a process-plant piping system | ASME B31.3 |
| Estimate incident energy for an arc-flash study | IEEE 1584, with workplace practices from NFPA 70E |
| Determine snow and wind loads on a roof | ASCE 7 |

## Getting access

Standards are usually sold, and fees and access terms change, so check the publisher (checked on 2026-10-23): [www.asme.org/codes-standards](https://www.asme.org/codes-standards), [standards.ieee.org](https://standards.ieee.org), [www.astm.org](https://www.astm.org), [www.concrete.org](https://www.concrete.org), [www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7](https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7) and [www.nfpa.org](https://www.nfpa.org). University libraries and employers often hold subscriptions; NFPA and ICC offer free read-only access to many codes.

## Common mistakes

- **Confusing the material standard with the design standard.** ASTM A992 says what the steel is; AISC 360 says how to design with it.
- **Citing no edition** in a specification.
- **Assuming a standard is law.** It is mandatory only when referenced by an adopted code or a contract.
- **Using a summary table from the internet** instead of the standard itself.

## Quick recap

- Standards are consensus documents; codes are standards meant for adoption into law.
- ASME: pressure equipment and piping. IEEE: electrical, electronics and communications. ASTM: materials and tests. ACI: concrete. Also ASCE 7 loads, AISC steel, NFPA fire and electrical safety, UL product safety.
- Read designations for the number, metric version and edition year.
- The edition that applies is set by the adopted code or the contract.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and take the quiz to match standards bodies to real engineering tasks.


Match ASME, IEEE, ASTM, ACI and other standards bodies to the documents engineers use, and read a standard designation.

Standards bodies

What is a standard? A quick guide to standards and why they matter

Code vs Standard: What’s the Difference? (ASME/API Explained for Engineers)

Set up a comment log with columns: number, line, comment, originator's response, status.

Check the inputs: does each one have a source? Note anything you would confirm against the drawing or table.

Make your own rough estimate of the moment and deflection before checking the arithmetic line by line.

Check each line's arithmetic and units. Mark agreed lines with a tick (or yellow) and errors in red.

Write a specific comment for each error, with the correct value: you should find at least an arithmetic error and a unit-conversion error.

Recompute the deflection with the corrected values and state whether the conclusion (NG, increase beam size) changes.

Note any process issues on the cover (for example the checker and date fields).

Swap roles: write the originator's response to each comment, then back-check that each correction is right and sign the check.

## Why this matters

Every engineer makes mistakes: a dropped factor of ten, a load copied from the wrong drawing, a code clause from the wrong edition. Professional practice does not assume perfection; it builds **checking** into the process so that errors are caught before documents are issued. Firms with strong quality systems issue fewer revisions, have fewer claims and earn more trust. As a junior engineer you will be checked constantly, and soon you will check others' work.

## The core idea: QA plans the process, QC checks the product

- **Quality assurance (QA)** is the *system*: procedures, templates, required reviews, checklists, training and records that make good work likely. It is about prevention.
- **Quality control (QC)** is the *checking* of a specific deliverable against requirements: this calc, this drawing set, this specification. It is about detection.

A typical firm's QA procedure defines which deliverables need which checks, who is qualified to check, how checks are recorded, and when a document may be issued.

## Levels of review

| level | who | what |
|---|---|---|
| **Self-check** | the originator | re-read, units, arithmetic, sanity check against a rough estimate |
| **Independent check** | a qualified checker who did not do the work | inputs, assumptions, method, arithmetic, conclusions; often line by line |
| **Discipline review** | discipline lead or engineer of record | design intent, code compliance, judgement |
| **Interdisciplinary coordination** | all disciplines together | clashes and interfaces (structure versus ducts, electrical loads versus mechanical equipment) |
| **Peer review** | an independent senior engineer, sometimes outside the firm | approach and key decisions on complex or high-consequence work; sometimes required by the authority having jurisdiction |

## How a check is run

A disciplined check follows a loop, often called **check and back-check**:

1. **Originator** issues the calc or drawing for checking with a transmittal: what to check, what references apply, what has changed since any previous check.
2. **Checker** reviews against the references, without redoing the work in the same way. Good checkers use an *independent method* where possible: a different formula, a quick hand estimate, software against a hand calc, or a known textbook case.
3. **Checker marks up.** A common convention (firms differ, so follow yours): yellow highlight for "checked and agreed", red for corrections, and another colour for questions or comments. Every comment is specific and cites the source.
4. **Comments are logged** in a comment-resolution sheet: number, location, comment, originator's response, status.
5. **Originator responds** to every comment: agree and fix, or explain why no change is needed.
6. **Checker back-checks** that each fix was made correctly and that no new errors were introduced, then signs and dates.
7. The document is issued only when every comment is closed.

## Worked example: two errors a checker should catch

An originator's calc reads:

```text
Uniform load w = 2 kip/ft, span L = 20 ft
M_max = w L^2 / 4 = 2 × 400 / 4 = 200 kip-ft
M_max = 200 kip-ft × 0.4448 = 89.0 kN·m
```

The checker's independent estimate and comments:

1. **Formula.** For a simply supported beam under uniform load, `M_max = w L^2 / 8`, giving `2 × 400 / 8 = 100 kip-ft`. (`w L^2 / 4` does not apply here; `P L / 4` is the midspan moment for a single point load P.) *Red: change to w L^2 / 8; M_max = 100 kip-ft.*
2. **Unit conversion.** 0.4448 is not the right factor. 1 kip = 4.448 kN and 1 ft = 0.3048 m, so 1 kip-ft = 4.448 × 0.3048 = 1.356 kN·m. *Red: 100 kip-ft × 1.356 = 135.6 kN·m.*

Three lines, two errors: the first doubles the moment, and the second shrinks the converted value by a factor of about three. Neither would crash a program or look obviously wrong at a glance. This is why checks exist.

## What a checker looks at

- **Inputs:** do they match the latest drawings, vendor data and criteria? Are sources cited?
- **Assumptions:** stated, reasonable and consistent with the design?
- **Method and references:** right formula, right code edition, applicable limits?
- **Arithmetic and units:** spot-check by hand; check that units cancel.
- **Reasonableness:** does the answer make sense compared with a rule of thumb or a similar past project?
- **Conclusions:** do they follow from the results, and are they carried to the drawings?

## Common mistakes

- **Checking by re-reading.** Reading the same steps again tends to repeat the same error. Use an independent method.
- **Vague comments.** "Looks off" gives the originator nothing to act on.
- **No back-check.** A fix that introduced a new error goes out unchecked.
- **Checking your own work as the "independent" checker.**
- **Taking comments personally.** A check is about the document, not the person. Thank your checker.

## Quick recap

- QA is the system that prevents errors; QC is the checking that detects them.
- Reviews range from self-check to independent check, discipline review, coordination and peer review.
- Run checks as a loop: issue, mark up, log, respond, back-check, sign.
- Use independent methods and reasonableness checks; cite sources in every comment.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and run a peer check on a short calculation with planted errors, using a comment log.


Run an independent check of a calculation with a comment log and back-check, and tell quality assurance from quality control.

QA/QC and peer review

Quality Assurance vs Quality Control: What’s the Difference?

Find, read and cite code clauses, match standards bodies to their documents, and run QA/QC checks and peer reviews.

Codes and Standards

Choose the FE discipline that best matches your degree and career goal, and write down why.

Open the current exam specification for that discipline on the NCEES site and list its knowledge areas with their approximate question counts.

Look up your state board's FE eligibility rules (for example whether you can sit in your final year) and how to apply for EI/EIT status after passing.

Create a MyNCEES account if you plan to register, and download the free FE Reference Handbook. Spend 20 minutes finding five equations you use often.

Do a timed diagnostic: a few problems from each knowledge area. Score yourself by area.

Rank the areas by (question weight) x (your weakness) and allocate your weekly study hours to match.

Write a week-by-week calendar with a target exam date, at least one full timed practice exam, and a final taper week.

Start an error log with columns: problem, area, cause of the mistake (concept, units, arithmetic, handbook search, time) and fix.

## Why this matters

In the United States, the **Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam** is the first exam on the road to a Professional Engineer (PE) licence. Passing it, together with an accredited degree, usually lets you apply to your state board as an **Engineer Intern (EI)** or **Engineer in Training (EIT)**, a title many employers look for on graduate applications. The FE covers the breadth of an undergraduate engineering degree, so the best time to take it is often close to graduation, while the material is fresh. A plan turns "I should take the FE sometime" into a date and a pass.

## The core idea: know the exam, then plan backwards

### Who runs what

- **NCEES** (National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying) writes and administers the FE and PE exams for the licensing boards of US states and territories. Exam details, specifications and registration are on [ncees.org/exams/fe-exam](https://ncees.org/exams/fe-exam/) (checked on 2026-10-23).
- **State licensing boards** decide who may take the exam, when you can apply for EI/EIT status, and every other licensing rule. Find yours through the NCEES licensing board directory at [ncees.org/about/member-licensing-board-directory](https://ncees.org/about/member-licensing-board-directory/) (checked on 2026-10-23).
- **ABET** accredits engineering programmes. Most boards' standard path assumes an ABET-accredited engineering degree; you can check a programme at [www.abet.org/accreditation/find-programs](https://www.abet.org/accreditation/find-programs/) (checked on 2026-10-23).

### What to look up (and not memorise from a lesson)

Exam formats, question counts, time limits, fees, retake rules and the topic lists change. Read these on the NCEES site when you plan, not from a blog post:

- The **FE disciplines** offered (for example Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Computer, and several others). Choose the one closest to your degree and intended career.
- The current **exam specifications** for your discipline: the knowledge areas and approximate number of questions in each. This is the core of your plan.
- The **NCEES FE Reference Handbook**, the only reference you may use during the exam. It is provided on screen as a searchable PDF and is available free from your MyNCEES account. Practise with exactly this document.
- Registration, scheduling at approved test centres, accommodations and exam-day rules.

## Building the plan

1. **Pick a target date** and work backwards. Many candidates plan around 2 to 4 months of study; adjust to your schedule and how recently you took the courses.
2. **Self-assess.** Take a timed diagnostic (an official NCEES practice exam, or problems from each knowledge area) and score yourself by area.
3. **Weight your time** by two numbers: how many questions an area has on the specification, and how weak you are in it. A heavily weighted area you are weak in comes first.
4. **Schedule weekly blocks.** For example, five sessions a week, each with review of one topic, 15 to 25 timed problems, and a short error log.
5. **Practise with the handbook.** For every problem, find the equation in the handbook search before solving. Speed at finding equations is a real skill on exam day.
6. **Keep an error log:** problem, area, why you got it wrong (concept, units, arithmetic, handbook search, time), and the fix.
7. **Full-length practice:** one or two complete timed practice exams in the last few weeks, under exam-like conditions.
8. **Final week:** light review of your error log, logistics (ID, route, test centre rules), and sleep.

## Worked example: allocating 120 hours

Suppose you have 12 weeks at 10 hours a week. Your diagnostic shows you are strong in mathematics and statics, weak in fluid mechanics and electricity, and average elsewhere. You might plan:

| block | weeks | focus |
|---|---|---|
| foundation | 1-2 | diagnostic, handbook navigation drills, plan |
| weak, heavily weighted areas | 3-7 | fluid mechanics, electricity, plus your discipline's largest areas |
| average areas | 8-10 | remaining topics, mixed problem sets |
| exam simulation | 11 | one full timed practice exam, review every miss |
| taper | 12 | error log, light mixed sets, logistics |

The numbers are an illustration. Use the current specification for your discipline to set the real weights.

## Study techniques that work

- **Timed practice beats re-reading.** The exam rewards solving many moderate problems quickly.
- **Estimate first.** A rough answer helps you reject wrong multiple-choice options and catch unit errors.
- **Units, always.** Many distractors are the right number with the wrong unit conversion.
- **Spaced review.** Revisit each topic briefly a week and a month later.
- **Study groups** help with explanations; solve problems alone first.

## After the exam

If you pass, apply to your state board for EI/EIT certification if it is not automatic (rules vary), and record the date: it starts the clock on several later steps. If you do not pass, NCEES provides a diagnostic report by area; use it to adjust your plan, and check the retake rules on the NCEES site.

## Common mistakes

- **Studying from old topic lists** instead of the current specification.
- **Practising with a different handbook** or formula sheet.
- **No timed practice** until the week before.
- **Leaving it for years after graduation**, when the breadth topics are hardest to recall.
- **Assuming your state's rules** match a friend's in another state.

## Quick recap

- NCEES runs the FE exam; your state board sets eligibility and licensing rules.
- Use the current specification and the free FE Reference Handbook from the official site.
- Diagnose, weight by specification and weakness, schedule timed practice, keep an error log, simulate the exam.
- After passing, apply for EI/EIT status as your board requires.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and build your own dated FE study plan from the official exam specification.


Build a dated FE exam study plan from the official NCEES specification, your own diagnostic and the FE Reference Handbook.

FE exam prep

FE Exam Prep 1, What the FE Exam Is and Who Should Take It

FE Exam Study Tips and Tricks

Find your state licensing board through the NCEES board directory and download or read its experience requirements and application form.

Note how your board describes qualifying experience (categories, supervision, how graduate degrees count) and how many years it requires for your situation.

Create a log (spreadsheet or document) with columns: period, employer, supervisor and licence status, project, role, engineering tasks, judgement shown, codes and standards used, hours, evidence.

Fill in at least two entries for recent work or study projects, describing engineering tasks in specific, verifiable terms.

For each entry, mark whether it would likely count as engineering-level experience and why, using your board's wording.

Identify a licensed engineer (supervisor, professor or mentor) who could act as a reference, and note what of your work they have seen directly.

Read about the NCEES Record service and decide whether you will use it now or later.

Set a monthly calendar reminder to update the log.

## Why this matters

In the United States, only a licensed **Professional Engineer (PE)** may offer engineering services to the public, take legal responsibility for designs, and seal drawings and calculations submitted to authorities. Not every engineering job requires a licence (many in manufacturing, for example, fall under an "industrial exemption"), but for civil and structural engineers, for building-services and utility work, and for anyone who wants to lead projects or run a firm, the PE is usually essential. The biggest single requirement is **qualifying experience**, and the engineers who struggle with it are often the ones who did not record it as they went.

## The core idea: education, exams and experience

The typical US path, which each state board adapts in its own rules, is:

1. **Education:** an engineering degree, usually from an **ABET**-accredited programme. Other degrees are often accepted with more experience.
2. **FE exam,** then EI/EIT status from the state board.
3. **Qualifying experience:** commonly about **four years** of progressive engineering experience after an accredited degree, much of it under the supervision of a licensed PE. Boards differ on how much they require, how they count graduate degrees, and what counts as supervision.
4. **PE exam** in a discipline (for example Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Computer, or Structural, which has its own exam). Many boards now let you sit for the PE before your experience is complete, then license you once it is.
5. **Application and references:** your board reviews your experience record and references from engineers, usually licensed ones, who know your work.
6. **Licence maintenance:** most states require continuing education (often counted in professional development hours, PDH) and periodic renewal.

Everything above varies by jurisdiction and changes. Always read your own board's current rules, found through the NCEES licensing board directory at [ncees.org/about/member-licensing-board-directory](https://ncees.org/about/member-licensing-board-directory/), and NCEES licensure guidance at [ncees.org/licensure](https://ncees.org/licensure/) (both checked on 2026-10-23).

## What counts as qualifying experience

Boards look for experience that is:

- **Engineering-level:** applying engineering principles and judgement (analysis, design, specification, testing, evaluation), not only drafting, sales or routine data entry.
- **Progressive:** growing in complexity and responsibility over time. Year four should look harder than year one.
- **Supervised:** under, or verifiable by, a licensed engineer in responsible charge.
- **Documented and verifiable:** dates, employers, projects and supervisors your references can confirm.

Boards commonly ask you to describe experience across activities such as problem definition, design and analysis, codes and standards, construction or production support, and project management. Your board's experience form tells you exactly how.

## The NCEES Record

NCEES offers an online **Record** service ([ncees.org/ncees-services/records-program](https://ncees.org/ncees-services/records-program), checked on 2026-10-23) in which you compile your transcripts, exam results, verified experience and references once. It can be sent to state boards when you apply, and is especially useful later if you need licences in several states (licensure by **comity**). Whether you use it or not, keep your own detailed log.

## Worked example: a monthly experience log entry

Keep a simple log, updated monthly, while the details are fresh:

| field | example |
|---|---|
| period | March 2027 |
| employer / supervisor | Example Engineering Ltd. / J. Rivera, PE (licence state and number recorded privately) |
| project | Pump station upgrade, 60% design |
| role | Assistant engineer, mechanical |
| engineering tasks | Calculated system head curve; selected two pumps against it; checked NPSH available against required; prepared calc package rev A |
| judgement shown | Chose a 4-pole motor to reduce noise near housing; documented alternatives |
| codes and standards | Owner's design criteria; referenced hydraulic standards per spec |
| hours | 140 engineering, 20 non-engineering (training, admin) |
| evidence | Calc CALC-014 rev A (checked by J. Rivera) |

At application time, you condense these entries into the board's format. Because each entry names evidence and a supervisor, your references can confirm it easily. Do not copy confidential client information into a personal log; describe the work in general terms.

## Planning your experience

- **Ask for breadth.** If you have only drafted for a year, ask your supervisor for design and analysis tasks.
- **Find a PE mentor** early; many boards expect your references to have seen your work directly.
- **Track responsible charge.** Note when you started making decisions rather than following instructions.
- **Check your board early,** at least once a year, especially if you move states or change employer.

## Common mistakes

- **Reconstructing four years from memory** at application time.
- **Overstating experience.** Boards check, and misrepresentation can lead to denial or discipline.
- **Assuming all work counts.** Purely non-technical duties usually do not.
- **Losing contact with supervisors** who could verify your early years.
- **Using "engineer" titles illegally.** Many states restrict titles such as "Professional Engineer" or "engineer" in offering services to licensed individuals; learn your state's rules.

## Quick recap

- The usual path is ABET degree, FE, about four years of progressive, supervised experience, PE exam, licence, continuing education. Your state board sets the details.
- Qualifying experience is engineering-level, progressive, supervised and verifiable.
- Keep a monthly log with tasks, judgement, supervisor and evidence; consider the NCEES Record.
- A licence carries legal responsibility: only a PE in responsible charge may seal engineering work.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and start a qualifying-experience log in the format your state board uses.


Understand the PE licensure path and keep a monthly log of qualifying engineering experience your references can verify.

Experience and the PE

FE vs PE Exam Explained | Your Step-by-Step Roadmap to Becoming a Licensed Engineer (P.E.)

## Why this matters

Engineering decisions put people at risk if they are wrong. That is why engineering is a licensed profession, and why every engineering society and licensing board has a code of ethics. Most ethical problems at work are not dramatic: a schedule that leaves no time to check, a client who wants a cheaper detail, a request to seal work you did not supervise. Knowing your obligations, and a method for working through a dilemma, lets you act early and calmly instead of discovering the problem after something has failed.

## The core idea: the public comes first

The **NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers** (National Society of Professional Engineers) is the most widely cited US code. Its six Fundamental Canons say that engineers, in fulfilling their professional duties, shall:

1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts.
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

The full code, with its rules of practice and professional obligations, is at [www.nspe.org/career-growth/ethics/nspe-code-ethics-engineers](https://www.nspe.org/career-growth/ethics/nspe-code-ethics-engineers), and NSPE's Board of Ethical Review publishes real case discussions at [www.nspe.org/career-growth/ethics/board-ethical-review-cases](https://www.nspe.org/career-growth/ethics/board-ethical-review-cases) (both checked on 2026-10-23). Your **state board's rules of professional conduct** are the legally binding version for licensed engineers; read them too.

Note the order: loyalty to the client (canon 4) is real, but canon 1 comes first. If following the client's instruction would endanger the public, the public wins.

## Key obligations in practice

- **Competence:** do not design outside your expertise. Get help, train, or decline.
- **Sealing:** seal only work prepared under your **responsible charge**. Sealing someone else's work after a quick look ("plan stamping") is prohibited.
- **Conflicts of interest:** disclose them (for example, a financial interest in a supplier you are evaluating).
- **Confidentiality:** do not disclose a client's confidential information without consent, except where the law or public safety requires it.
- **Honesty:** do not falsify data, overstate qualifications or take credit for others' work.
- **Escalation:** if your judgement is overruled in a way that endangers life or property, notify your employer or client and, where required, the appropriate authority.

## Worked example: the Hyatt Regency walkway collapse

In 1981, two suspended walkways in the atrium of the Hyatt Regency hotel in Kansas City, Missouri collapsed during a crowded event, killing 114 people. The original design hung both walkways from continuous rods. During shop drawing development, the detail was changed to two separate sets of rods, so the upper walkway's connection had to carry the lower walkway as well, roughly doubling the load on it. The change was not adequately checked, and the connection had been weak even in the original design. The engineers of record later lost their licences.

Ethical lessons: the engineer who seals the drawings is responsible for reviewing changes to them; shop drawing review is a safety-critical task, not a formality; and "someone else probably checked it" is not a defence. The American Society of Civil Engineers' video series on ethics case studies covers this and other cases.

## A method for ethics cases

1. **State the facts.** What is known, what is assumed?
2. **Identify the stakeholders:** public, client, employer, colleagues, you.
3. **Find the obligations** in the NSPE code and your state board's rules that apply.
4. **List options,** including talking to the person involved, escalating inside the firm, getting a second opinion, and, as a last resort, notifying the authority.
5. **Test each option:** does it protect the public? Is it honest? Would you be comfortable explaining it to the board or in the newspaper?
6. **Act and document:** keep a dated record of what you raised, with whom, and the response.

## Liability: the legal side

- **Standard of care:** engineers are generally judged against what a reasonably competent engineer would have done in similar circumstances, not against perfection.
- **Negligence** is failing to meet that standard of care, causing harm. It can lead to civil claims; serious misconduct can lead to discipline by the board, and in rare cases criminal charges.
- **Professional liability insurance** (errors and omissions) protects firms and engineers against claims; contracts allocate risk and may limit liability.
- **Documentation** (calcs, checks, meeting notes, emails confirming decisions) is your best evidence that you met the standard of care.

This lesson is an orientation, not legal advice. Your employer, professional society and, where needed, a lawyer are the right sources for specific situations.

## Common mistakes

- **Waiting until it is too late** to raise a concern.
- **Raising concerns only verbally.** Follow up in writing.
- **Assuming the client or contractor will catch it.**
- **Accepting work beyond your competence** to please a client.

## Quick recap

- NSPE's first canon: hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public.
- Seal only work under your responsible charge; stay within competence; disclose conflicts; be honest.
- Use a method: facts, stakeholders, obligations, options, tests, action and documentation.
- Liability turns on the standard of care; good records protect you and the public.

## Try it

Open the **Do** tab and take the quiz to resolve short ethics cases using the NSPE canons.


Resolve engineering ethics cases with the NSPE Code of Ethics and understand the standard of care and professional liability.

Ethics and liability

Engineering Ethics: Crash Course Engineering #27

Hyatt Regency Walkway Collapse: Ethics Case Study No. 4

Plan for the FE exam, log qualifying experience toward the PE licence, and resolve ethics and liability questions.

Engineering Practice & Licensure

About this course

Course content

Professional Practice

Codes and Standards

Licensure

Where this course leads

Next course on the path

Careers that use it